The effect of study medium and test medium (paper versus digital) on second language vocabulary learning amongst children

Vocabulary learning is fundamental to mastering any language and therefore formal vocabulary learning is an integral part of second-language learning in educational settings. Given the growing prevalence of digital tools in education, understanding the effect of using digital versus paper-based tools for vocabulary learning and testing is essential. Furthermore, it is important to explore whether the congruency between the study and test media influences vocabulary test performance. This study examined the effect of study medium (paper vs. digital), test medium, and their interaction on foreign language vocabulary learning among middle school students. Whereas prior research on the effect of medium congruency in learning contexts has focused on university students and immediate testing, this study explored these effects in a more naturalistic setting on eighth-grade students. Participants (N = 77) learned English vocabulary through either paper or digital flashcards over two study sessions, one day apart. A delayed criterion test was conducted a week later, both on paper and digitally, to assess vocabulary retention. Participants were tested on paper for half of the words and on a screen for the other half. Findings indicated no statistically significant effect of study medium, test medium, or their interaction, on overall test performance. However, a numerical trend suggested better test performance when study and test mediums matched, particularly for paper-based assessments. These trends are consistent with prior research conducted on adults, and with the encoding-specificity principle, highlighting its potential role in optimizing learning outcomes. Future research should investigate larger, more balanced samples, the role of student preferences, metacognitive assessments of learning, and extended study durations in diverse educational settings. Findings may have implications for instructional design, particularly in aligning study and test mediums to enhance vocabulary retention in middle school foreign language education.